Asylum and International Law

I. Purpose of the inquiry.- One History of Asylum and Basis for Its Grant.- II. History of asylum.- Asylum in Sacred Places.- From Religious Sanctity to Sovereignty.- Later Developments: Political Asylum.- Later Developments: Diplomatic Asylum.- III. Basis for the grant of asylum.- A. Legal Basis.- 1. International law.- a. Territorial asylum.- b. Non-territorial asylum.- 2. National law.- B. Extra-Legal Basis.- Two Asylum from the Viewpoint of the Individual.- IV. The Individual¿s position in international law with respect to asylum.- a. The individual¿s international duties.- b. The individual¿s international rights.- c. The individual¿s right to petition before international organs.- d. The individual¿s procedural ability and amenability before international organs.- a. Views expressed recently by various governments on the nature of the right of asylum.- b. Provision of asylum in national constitutions and legislation.- c. Provision for non-extradition of political offenders in extradition treaties.- a. Surrender not in pursuance of extradition treaty.- b. Surrender in consequence of seizure on foreign territory by the officials of the state of origin.- c. Surrender in consequence of mistake.- V. Asylum as a human right.- VI. The international political refugee.- Who is an International Political Refugee?.- 1. Refugees specified.- 2. Refugee defined.- Refugeehood and Statelessness.- Sources of Law Pertaining to Refugees.- a. Internal sources.- b. International sources.- Treatment of Refugees.- Admission.- Non-expulsion (non-refoulement).- Exemption from reciprocity.- Exemption from exceptional measures.- Applicable law for determining refugee¿s personal status.- Naturalization.- Administrative assistance.- Travel.- a. Documents.- b. Travel for activities other than economic.- c. Travel for economic activities.- Other rights and protection.- Determination of the Refugee Status.- Termination of the Refugee Status.- a. Repatriation.- b. Migration.- c. Assimilation.- Dependents of the Refugee.- Refugee and Extradition.- Enforcement of Rights of Refugees.- International Machinery for Protection of Refugees.- Three Asylum from the Viewpoint of States.- Sub-Part A. Territorial Asylum.- VII. Rights and duties of states granting territorial asylum.- Right of States to Grant Territorial Asylum.- Duties of States Granting Territorial Asylum.- 1. Duty to control the activities of the person to whom asylum is given.- 2. Duty with respect to extradition.- 3. Duty with respect to non-refoulement.- VIII. The political offense.- Growth of the Notion of Political Offense.- Meaning of Political Offense.- 1. Act as part of an organized political activity.- 2. Act committed with predominantly political characteristics.- 3. Act justifying non-extradition in order to avoid political persecution.- The Problem of Mixed Offenses.- 1. The principle of predominant element.- 2. The principle of the attentat clause.- 3. The principle of the unqualified attentat clause.- 4. Murder.- 5. Anarchist offenses.- 6. Acts of communists.- 7. Brutality.- 8. Quislings, traitors, or collaborationists with the enemy.- 9. War criminals.- 10. Revolutionary activities.- 11. Offenses incident to flight from country.- 12. Murder and robbery.- 13. Robbery.- 14. Assault.- 15. Bombings.- 16. Bribery.- 17. Forgery.- 18. Genocide.- 19. Religious offenses.- 20. Terrorism.- 21. The Harvard Research approach.- Sub-Part B. Non-Territorial Asylum.- IX. The forms of non-territorial asylum.- X. Diplomatic asylum.- A. The Principle of Exterritoriality of the Diplomatic Premises as a Basis for Diplomatic Asylum.- B. Diplomatic Privileges as a Basis for Diplomatic Asylum.- C. International Custom as a Basis for Diplomatic Asylum.- 1. Practice of states in Europe.- 2. Practice of the United Kingdom.- 3. Practice of the United States of America.- 4. Practice of states in Asia and Africa.- 5. Practice of states in South and Central America.- Argentina.- Bolivia.- Brazil.- Chile.- Colombia.- Costa Rica.- Cuba.- Dominican Republic.- Ecuador.- El Salvador.- Guatemala.- Haiti.- Honduras.- Mexico.- Nicaragua.- Panama.- Paraguay.- Peru.- Uruguay.- Venezuela.- D. Usage as a Basis for Diplomatic Asylum.- E. Treaty as a Basis for Diplomatic Asylum.- 1. Treaty on international penal law.- 2. Convention on asylum.- 3. Convention on political asylum.- 4. Treaty on political asylum and refuge.- 5. Convention on diplomatic asylum.- F. Regional Customary International Law as a Basis for Diplomatic Asylum.- XI. Consular asylum.- XII. Maritime asylum.- A. Asylum in Public Vessels.- B. Asylum in Private Vessels.- Four Conclusion.- XIII. Summary and conclusions.